Sexual Orientation And Diversity In The Workforce

Sexual Orientation And Diversity In The Workforce Todays organizations are becoming increasingly diversified in many ways. With respect to sexual orientation, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) employees constitute one of the largest but least studied minority groups in the workforce. Although invisible, sexuality is at the core of each workers identity. Therefore, it poses a number of complex challenges towards organizations and their human resources department. The Dont ask dont tell (DADT) policy of the U.S. Military presents a striking example of the silence surrounding their identity on the work floor. In this paper, the impact of silencing as well as the ways in which the voice of LGBT employees and other invisible minorities can be heard is studied. Introduction Diversity Diversity includes cultural factors such as race, gender, age, color, physical ability, national origin, etc. The broader definition of diversity additionally includes religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, education, language, lifestyle, beliefs, physical appearance and economic status (Wentling and PalmaRivas, 2000). The word diversity is not contained in any report or law; instead, it grew out of academic and popular press usage. Diversity in the workforce With respect to the workplace, diversity refers to the co-existence of employees from various socio-cultural backgrounds. Every human being is unique, but at the same time, every individual shares biological as well as environmental characteristics with any group of others. In this context, diversity can be generally defined as recognition of the people who share such common traits. These traits -the characteristics that make up a whole person- both unite and divide us. In the domain of human resources (HR), however, the term diversity can represent three major working definitions: the politically correct term for employment equity/affirmative action; the recruitment and selection of ethnic groups and women; the management of individuals sharing a broad range of common traits. The first definition represents the most narrow view of diversity and is usually found in organizations without formal diversity policies or programs. The second definition reflects the reality of many diversity programs focusing on employment regulation concerns. And finally, the last definition is the broadest and generally used in organizations containing diversity programs (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). Dimensions of diversity When talking about diversity, one should keep in mind the differences between primary and secondary dimensions. Primary dimensions are those human differences that are innate and that have a drastic impact on us. Age, ethnicity, race, gender, physical abilities/qualities and sexual/affectional orientation are examples of primary dimensions at the heart of individual identities. Alternatively, secondary dimensions are more changeable and can be discarded or modified during our lifetime. Such dimensions add depth and individuality to our lives. Education, geographical location, marital status, income, military experience, religion, work experience and parental status are illustrations of secondary dimensions. The primary and secondary dimensions can be represented as a circle, with the primary dimensions at the centre and the secondary dimensions surrounding them. An illustration of both groups of dimensions can be found in Figure 1(Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). Figure 1: Primary and secondary dimensions of diversity In any initial encounter, people identify by the primary dimensions that are most readily observed: age, gender, race and physical abilities/qualities. Since most individuals live in homogeneous communities, or at least in circumstances far less diverse than our society as a whole, their entry into the workplace may be a first encounter with a diverse population. During this kind of first encounter, phenomena such as stereotyping and prejudice might appear. Stereotyping works against peoples individuality and limits their potential. Generally, if the stereotype is that the person is not competent, then people may not perform competently. This illustrates that, to a large extent, people perform in line with the expectations placed on them. Clinging to negative stereotypes about people other than ourselves leads to prejudice, which means processing our stereotypes such that ones own sense of superiority to the members of that group is reinforced. It is the role of the appropriate institutions within a country to recognize and eradicate both stereotyping and prejudice (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). Managing diversity Managing diversity can be defined as: A planned systematic and comprehensive managerial process for developing an organizational environment in which all employees, with their similarities and differences, can contribute to the strategic and competitive advantage of the organization, and where no-one is excluded on the basis of factors unrelated to productivity (Thomas, 1996). On the work floor, managing diversity presents a key issue for governments as well as private organizations. Its importance has mainly been brought about by the free movement of labor due to globalization. The fight for human rights by certain minority groups, who feel excluded from the employment sector, discloses another impulse for the current significance of diversity management. Within the context of equal opportunities in the workplace, workforce diversity again plays a major role. This equal opportunity philosophy is aimed at ensuring that organizations make the most out of the uniqueness of a diverse workforce, which might assist the organization to be more efficient and effective, rather than losing talent. Broadly, diversity management is the systematic and planned commitment by the organizations to recruit, retain, reward and promote a heterogeneous mix of employees (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). Valuing diversity For organizations to fight discrimination, it is essential to value diversity. This valuing starts with recognizing the fundamental difference between valuing diversity on the one hand, and employment equity and/or affirmative action on the other. Employment equity is an officially authorized approach to workplace discrimination. For instance, it is against the law to reject a person a job or job advantage because of age, race, sexual orientation, gender or other primary characteristics. Affirmative action is a reaction to the under-use of protected groups in various job classes in which a business attempts to attract people from such groups because of their failure to do so in the past as a result of inequity. Valuing diversity surpasses both concepts and leads to management designed to reap the benefits offered by a diversified workforce (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). Whereas affirmative action and employment equity are government-initiated, legally driven attempts to alter -from a quantitative standpoint- the composition of a companys workforce, valuing diversity is a company-specific, necessity-driven effort to alter -from a qualitative standpoint- the utilization of the companys workforce. In an organization that values diversity, managing diversity becomes a substitute for assimilation (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). Sexual orientation Within the framework of diversity management, sexual orientation represents a non-observable or underlying type of diversity, as opposed to more visible traits such as race or gender. The reason is that gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees can choose to what extent they reveal their sexual orientation in the workplace. Lately, sexual orientation has received a growing amount of attention, including through the prohibition of employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation for both private and public employees. Another indication of this increasing attention regards the mounting number of organizations that fight against this type of discrimination. For instance, in the United States, in many large organizations, Lesbian and Gay Employee Groups are demanding the exclusion of discrimination based on sexual orientation, the provision of guidance to enhance tolerance in the work environment, and the equal treatment of significant others (e.g. relating to health care benefits ) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003). Parallel to the social and societal developments, there has been an increase in scientific investigation on sexual orientation in the workforce (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003). Sexual orientation in the workforce: Literature overview Three research streams can be clearly distinguished within the literature on sexual orientation in the workplace. The first research stream studies the discrimination and minority status experienced by lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in the workplace. A second strand of studies takes the issue of coming out at work as the focal point. In fact, one of the work-related decisions that all gay, lesbian, and bisexual people face, is to what extent they unveil their sexual orientation on the work floor. The third and last research stream relates to the more specific work-related issues of gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees (as opposed to the general character of the studies belonging to the first research stream) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003). Within the first research stream, it was found that the majority of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people have once experienced discrimination on the work floor (Croteau, 1996). Here, the construct of heterosexism seems to play a central role. Heterosexism can be defined as an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any non-heterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community (Herek, 1990). Research has demonstrated that heterosexism in the organization can lead to a decrease in perceived productivity, job contentment, organizational commitment, career dedication, and organization-based self-esteem. In addition, it can lead to an increases in perceived health problems, psychological distress, and turnover intentions among gay, lesbian, and bisexual employees (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003). The outcome of the second research stream reveals that there are five different levels of coming out, namely acting, passing, covering, implicitly out and explicitly out (Chung, 2001). Nevertheless, other possible classifications do exist. The concealment of ones sexual orientation has negative consequences at the individual level (depressing work attitudes, low job contentment, anxiety, etc.), group level (dysfunctional communication, low work team cohesion, etc.) as well as organizational level (higher turnover and lower productivity) (Van Hoye and Lievens, 2003). To date, very few studies have taken the approach of the third research stream. An example of a scarcely studied topic within this field of research concerns the influence of the sexual orientation of job candidates on their evaluation by HR professionals. One of the motives that almost no research has specifically examined the consequences of sexual orientation on hiring decisions, is that it is very difficult to examine this issue in field settings with real candidates. Thus, although the outcomes of such studies are insightful, not enough research has been carried out so far to draw sound conclusions. For an illustration of the sexual orientation policy of the SAC company (Scottish Agricultural College), see appendix. SAC is an innovative, knowledge-based organization supporting the development of  rural communities and industries. (MOET IK NOG TOEVOEGEN) Diversity policy worldwide IEDEREEN ZN STUKJE OVER CONTINENTEN KOMT HIER The United States We first introduce the general conditions for acceptance of sexual diversity in America since these have shaped the context for coping with sexual diversity, and more specific LGBT, on the work floor . LGBT  rights are very complex in  the Americas since acceptance of the phenomenon varies widely between Canada, the United States or the Southern Americas. We will here focus on the United States (U.S.). In the U.S.,  LGBT-related laws include amongst others: government recognition of same-sex relationships,  LGBT adoption, sexual orientation and military service,  immigration equality, anti-discrimination laws, hate crime laws regarding  violence against LGBT people,  sodomy laws, anti-lesbianism  laws, and higher  ages of consent  for same-sex activities. Generally, it was not until 2003 that sexual acts between persons of the same sex became legal in the  U.S. However, many other laws are still not recognized on federal level and a wide spread amongst states co ncerning the enabling of those laws exist. We will now discuss the policy concerning LGBT discrimination in the work environment in the U.S. Legislative policy: the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) Employment discrimination  refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. (Source) In general there is no common law that states that employment discrimination based on sexual orientation is wrong and discrimination against employees who are gay, or simply appear to be gay, is legal in many workplaces in the U.S. (Ragin, 2004) The first bill on the subject of sexual orientation discrimination was introduced in Congress in 1974. However it was not until 1994 that the  Employment Non-Discrimination Act  (ENDA), a proposed bill in the  United States Congress  that would prohibit  discrimination  against employees on the basis of  sexual orientation  or  gender identity  by civilian, nonreligious employers with at least 15 employees, was introduced.  [1]  It failed in 1994 and 1995, though by 1996, missed passage in the Senate by a 49-50 vote. Until 2009, every proposal in the legislative history of introducing the law failed. Furthermore, many versions of the ENDA only concerned LGB and did not include provisions that protect  transgender  people from discrimination. Currently, only twenty-two states have laws that ban sexual orientation discrimination: California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nevada, New Hampsh ire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin. As a result of the limited coverage of States that enabled the law, LGBT people face serious discrimination in employment, including being fired, being denied a promotion, and experiencing harassment on the job.  [2]   Additional to the differentiation between the several states of the U.S., another distinction in employment discrimination based on sexual orientation that can be made involves the difference in coping with diversity between public and private sectors.  [3]  Extensive anti- discrimination legislation protecting public sector workers makes workers in the public sector less likely to be arbitrarily fired than workers at private companies. (Boris, 2010) As a result, the public sector in the United States is noticeably more racially diverse and gender balanced than the private sector. The more protective climate and diverse workforce in the public sector may result in LGBT individuals feeling more comfortable in openly expressing their sexual orientation at work. If this is the case, the public sector may employ more openly LGBT employees. (Boris, 2010) Attitude of employers and employees towards LGBT in the workforce Generally, American workplaces have undergone a partial revolution over the last quarter century when it comes to LGBT equality. Public attitudes toward homosexuality became more liberal during the 1970s, then increasingly conservative through the 1980s, and then more liberal since 1990. (Roberson, 2009) Today, sexual orientation diversity is a key part of workplaces in the U.S. An estimated 8.8 million gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals live in the United States. (Bell et al., 2011) While it is difficult to ascertain how many of these individuals are in the labor force, U.S. Census data reveal that more than 86% of men and women in same-sex couples are employed, and that employment probabilities for gay men and lesbians lie below those of married heterosexual men, but above those of heterosexual women (Leppel, 2009). The issue on employment discrimination based on sexual orientation has become more important for many employers, workplace diversity programs have been major initiatives in US corporations over the last several years. (Day Schoenrade, 2000) An increase in share of LGBT in the workforce since was already reported by HR managers in the eighties. (Day Schoenrade, 2000) In response, in May of 1993, the Board of the Society for Human Resource Management, the premiere national association of American human resource practitioners, passed a resolution to include sexual orientation in its statement acclaiming the value of a diverse workforce (HR News, 1993). (Day Schoenrade, 2000) However, several surveys demonstrate that LGBT on the work floor is far from an accepted concept, discriminating practices are laid out by several surveys. A first example appears from a 1990 U.S. census in where Allegretto and Arthur (2001) found that after controlling for differences associated with being married, gay men earned 2.4% less than their unmarried heterosexual counterparts. (Ragin, 2004) Another range of surveys that study behavior and acceptance concerning LGBT on the work floor is cited by Day Schoenrade (2000) A first example is a survey reported by the National Defense Research Institute in 1993, which found through several national public opinion polls that a majority of heterosexual American workers report being uncomfortable with the idea of working with homosexuals. (Day Schoenrade, 2000) When respondents were confronted with the issue of working with homosexuals, one study found that 27 percent said that they would prefer not to and 25 percent said that they would strongly object. A second example involves a survey from Wall street Journal in 1993, which found that 66 percent of surveyed CEOs reported being reluctant to include a homosexual on a management committee. Leppel (2009) proved that discrimination on the basis of sexual rientation appears to drive up the unemployment of same-sex partners relative to that of married partners. Similarly, probabilities of being out of the labor force for same-sex partners are greater than those of heterosexual men and less than those of heterosexual women. (Leppel, 2009) Several reasons were sought for these discriminating behavior against LGBT. One persisting cause in the U.S. is the existence of strong religious believes. A survey of Kansas Citians found that 47 percent felt that their religious beliefs and morality strongly conflicted with homosexuality (Day, 2011). Other issues involving a negative attitude towards LGBT in the workforce are related to heterosexism and homophobia in organizational America today. (Gedro, 2010) Human resource management and LGBT An appropriate approach of human resource management to LGBT in the workforce is urgent because the trend in American society for more and more gay men and lesbians to make their sexual orientation known since this openness may create conflicts in the workplace (Day Schoenrade, 2000) There is some evidence that human resource departments are not fully supporting this growing need. For example, a sample of human resource professionals found that even though most believe that sexual orientation must be formally addressed in the workplace, and that they would individually speak out against anti-gay acts, only 20 percent of their companies have diversity programs that specifically address gay and lesbian work issues. (Day Schoenrade, 2000) This increased openness in sexual orientation may also be a reason for an increasing experiencing of LGB employees as a symbolic threat. Although a law has been approved, many Americans still oppose gay marriage. One consequence of this is that some heterosexual employees may experience symbolic threat when faced with LGB co-workers who are out at work and wish to bring their partners to company social events. Ragin (2004) already presumed that this symbolic threat of homosexuality could increase if gay marriages would be legalized in some states, and LGB workers could bring their spouses to workplace events. (Ragin, 2004) Attitude of labor unions towards LGBT in the workforce One interesting aspect is how labor unions U.S. are reacting to the recent discussions on sexual orientation in the workforce since unions, as democratic organizations , have a social obligation to represent the interests of all of their members. (Boris, 2010) However this can cause problems when the majority interest conflict with issues of inclusion and social justice for the minority such as LGBT employees. This might lead to the exclusion of minority interests or groups within unions. It should be noted that there is a strong differentiation between the several unions in their response to this minority group. As many research has pointed out, especially structural and demographic factors help to determine an American unions level of responsiveness to sexual diversity with American unions. (Boris, 2010) Gender mattered as unions with a female majority were more likely to address the concerns of LGBT members. Other examples of factors playing a role in determining a unions response to LGBT issues are the role of individual agency on the part of union leaders, activists, and rank-and-file union members. (Boris, 2010) DADT policy in the U.S. military An example frequently cited when discussing LGBT policies in the U.S. is the issue of gay policy in the U.S. military. In 1993, new laws and regulations pertaining to homosexuals and U.S. military service came into effect reflecting a compromise in policy. This compromise, colloquially referred to as dont ask, dont tell, holds that the presence in the armed forces of persons who demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion which are the essence of military capability. (Burelli Feder, 2009) Service members are not to be asked about nor allowed to discuss their homosexuality. This compromise notwithstanding, the issue has remained politically contentious. (Burelli Feder, 2009) While the decision to remain in the closet may be a functional and adaptive reaction to a hostile work environment, it also increases the risk and stress associated with losing cont rol over the disclosure process. (Ragin, 2004) Recent progress in enabling discrimination laws In recent years, several members of Congress have expressed interest in amending dont ask, dont tell. At least one bill that would repeal the law and replace it with a policy of nondiscrimination on the basis of sexual orientation-H.R. 1283-has been introduced in the 111th Congress. (Burelli Feder, 2009) An Act of Congress providing a mechanism to repeal Dont ask, dont tell was signed into law by President  Obama on 22 December 2010. As of February 2011, the Pentagon has started starting to dismantle DADT. Regarding the ENDA, we have to remain patient. In 2011, the U.S. Senate will reintroduce the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) in the 112th congress. In the meanwhile, hundreds of companies in U.S. have enacted policies protecting their lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender employees.   As of March 2011, 433 (87 percent) of the Fortune 500 companies had implemented non-discrimination policies that include sexual orientation, and 229 (46 percent) had policies that include gender identity.  [4]   Africa The issue of workforce diversity has not been a key problem in Africa before as much as it is today. Together with globalization and the need for an increasing number of organizations to spread globally to reach customers worldwide, the concept of diversity management gained attention. Managers must recognize the need for understanding more about the diverse workforce, which is deeper than what we see at the surface level (Henry and Evans, 2007). During the 1990s, the liberalization of economies and structural adjustment policies, brought about by the Brentwood institutions, opened the doors to free market economies, especially in Africa. These free market economies have stimulated the free movement of labor as a commodity, which in turn has resulted in an increasingly diversified workforce across the continent. Further, the privatization of most of the state-owned enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa also created an open door for migration of labor from all over the world (Henry and Evans, 2007). South Africa To meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, as in many other countries, South African businesses must address the best and brightest employees. Moreover, managers should understand that they can only compete successfully if they recognize the emergence of the diversified workforce and find the means to harness its energies, talents and differences for tomorrows challenges (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). The major groups providing diversity in the South African workforce are ethnic groups, women, younger workers, South Africans with disabilities and minority groups in the context of sexual orientation. With respect to the latter, it seems that at least 10% of the South African population is homosexual. This means that 10% of the men and women in the workforce, representing around one million people, are gay. However, while the workforce is increasingly diversifying, discrimination still presents an enormous problem in South Africa. In fact, research demonstrates that discrimination still exists in organizations, and that many South African workers still suffer from employment discrimination. Within the organization, its up to the HR professionals to develop and enforce policies and measures that protect the diversified workforce against illicit discrimination. To rectify the injustices of the past, the South African government has come to some actions. Amongst others, the following legislation has been introduced: the Labour Relations Act, No. 66 of 1995 (as amended); the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act, No. 108 of 1996; the Basic Conditions of Employment Act, No. 75 of 1997 (BCEA) (as amended); the Employment Equity Act, No. 55 of 1998 (EEA); the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act, No. 4 of 2000; and a Code of Good Practice on the handling of sexual harassment included in the Labour Relations Act (Section 203(1)). For example, Section 9 (2) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (No. 108 of 1996) states that: The State may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including age, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth (Grobler, Wà ¤rnich et al., 2006). ANDERE INTERESSANTE ZAKEN DIE NOG KUNNEN GEBRUIKT WORDEN LGBT military laws   Ã‚  Homosexuals allowed to serve in the military      Homosexuals banned from serving; repeal of policy underway   Ã‚  Homosexuals banned from serving (or homosexuality illegal)   Ã‚  Data not available References Bell, M. P., ÃÆ'-zbiligin, M. F., Beauregard, T. A., Sà ¼rgevil, O. (2011). Voice, silence, and diversity in 21st century organizations: strategies for inclusion of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees. HUman Resource Management, 50(1), 131 146. doi: 10.1002/hrm. Boris, M. B. (2010). Identity at work : U.S. labor union efforts to address sexual diversity through policy and practice. Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations, 17, 185-205. Elsevier. doi: 10.1108/S0742-6186(2010)0000017009. Burrelli, D. F., Feder, J. (2009). Homosexuals and the U . S . Military : Current Issues. Chung, Y. B. (2001). Work discrimination and coping strategies: Conceptual frameworks for counseling lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. The Career Development Quarterly,50, 33-44. Croteau, J. M. (1996). Research on the work experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings. Journal of Vocational Behavior,48, 195-209. Day, N. E. (2011). US small company leadersÊ ¼ religious motivation and other-directed organizational values. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour Research, 17(4). Day, N. E., Schoenrade, P. (2000). The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation, anti-discrimination policies, top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29(3), 346-363. doi: 10.1108/00483480010324706. Gedro, J. (2010). Lesbian presentations and representations of leadership, and the implications for HRD. Journal of European Industrial Training, 34(6), 552-564. doi: 10.1108/03090591011061220. Grobler, P., Wà ¤rnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2006). Human Resource Management In South Africa. 3rd edition. Thomson Learning. 571p. Henry, O. and Evans, A.J. (2007). Critical review of literature on workforce diversity. African Journal of Business Management,72-76. Herek, G. M. (1990). The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 316-333. Hopper, J. E., Salvaggio, N. (2008). Report from SIOP diversifying diversity: moving beyond race and gender: Professional Insights. Equal Opportunities International, 27(5), 465-470. doi: 10.1108/02610150810882314. Huffman, A. H., Watrous-Rodriguez, K. M., King, E. B. (2008). Supporting a diverse workforce: what type of support is most meaningful for lesbian and gay employees? Human Resource Management, 47(2), 237-253. doi: 10.1002/hrm. Leppel, K. (2009). Labour Force Status and Sexual Orientation. Economica, 76(301), 197-207. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0335.2007.00676.x. Ragins, B. R. (2004). Sexual orientation in the workplace : the unique work and career experiences of gay , lesbian and bisexual workers. Personnel and Human Resources Management, 23, 35-120. doi: 10.1016/S0742-7301(04)23002-X. Roberson, B. E. J. (2009). Equality for Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and Transgendered Employees in the Modern American Workplace Equality for Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , and Transgendered Employees in the Modern American Workplace. Schoenrade, P., College, W. J. (2000). The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation , anti-discrimination policies , top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29(3), 346-363. Swan, E. (2010). A testing time, full of potential?: Gender in management, histories and futures. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25(8), 661-675. doi: 10.1108/17542411011092327. Thomas. (1996). op. cit., pp. 101-103. Van Hoye, G. and Lievens, F. (2003). The Effects of Sexual Orientation on Hirability Ratings: An Experimental Study. Journal of Business and Psycho

Business Information Systems

Business Information Systems HA(IT) My questions: 1. Define the concept information system and its constitutive elements; describe the broad categories of computer-based information systems, providing relevant business examples for each category identified; explain how computer-based information systems can support managers at each level of an organisation. 2.Explain the main elements and steps of the project management process and, considering your essay writing as a project, provide a concrete description including numbers for that project; relate the main project management steps to the main phases of the systems development life cycle model; how are the life cycle phases handled in the V-model and the spiral model? 3. What is the Information Systems and Information Technology Function in an organization; what needs to be managed; how can the IS/IT function be organized; what does outsourcing mean and which role does it play in this context?Characters (with spaces) and 1 figure: 2 2645 Question 1 Information Systems To understand and define an Information System (IS) thoroughly, it’s important to separate the two words and understand them separately. Information is produced by processing data so that it is meaningful which can be not only understood by the recipient but also used to meet a specific goal or requirement. To understand information, data needs to be understood as well. Data are raw facts like a specific date or measurement. Data needs to be processed and transformed into information; this process is called the transformation process. E. . data regarding sales of a firm is useless unless putting it in the correct context. But if you sort the sales after type of product, you will be able to see what product has been sold the most. By using data to gain relevant information, it’s possible to reduce the uncertainty of different questions and thereby improve the decision making. A system can be found in every part of the world. A system is a set of interrelated components that work together towards a common goal. The solar system might not a have an obvious goal while a firm might have several goals like gaining profit or making the best product possible.To achieve these specific goals the system will need to obtain inputs and transform these into outputs, like described in the transformation process, data is seen as the input and information as the output. But to transform input into output isn’t enough. The output needs to be relevant compared to the objective(s) of the firm. For systems to be more effective the system can contain a feedback and control stage as well. By using the information we have just gathered it’s possible to define IS. IS is defined as the way people and organizations are gathering, storing and processing information.In a business the IS will contribute to making the correct decisions. But IS isn’t solely used for managers and workers’ decision making it can als o be used in other ways, like feedback for an organization’s quality. Computer-based information systems Today most IS involve Information Technology (IT) to create management information also called computer-based information systems. This is because of the many disadvantages it gives not having a computer-based information system. An IS can be divided into two categories called Operations Information Systems (OIS) and Management Information System (MIS).OIS contains 3 sub-systems each contributing in the daily running of a business. The 3 sub-systems of the OIS are: The Transaction Processing System (TPS), Office Automation Systems (OAS) and the Process Control Systems. The TPS is managing the many transactions occurring on daily basis on the operational level of an organization like withdrawal of money from an ATM, or orders and payments for goods and services. Even though the TPS is marked by a lot of repetitive tasks and routine, the function of it is essential and missi on-critical to an organization. A TPS will e. g. secure that an ATM is running correctly.If a person wants to withdraw money from his account via an ATM, the TPS will make sure that there’s enough money on the customer’s account so that the money can be withdrawn. The transaction will only take place if all tasks in the process can be completed. OAS is a common system within the OIS. OAS refers to the way that basic tasks in an office have been computerized. Before creating, storing and managing information was done physically, but by computerizing the office the time taking to create documents or arrange meetings is done faster, giving more time for the organization to take care of other tasks.The OAS helps making the office more than just an area for typing but an area for exchanging important knowledge about the organization by still reducing costs as well. If a manager wants to set up a meeting instead of giving a paper to each participant, he can choose to send an e-mail to all the participants even though they aren’t at the same location. The process control system deals with large amounts of data created by production processes.The process control system is used to control and support the different manufacturing processes of an organization. The process control system will automatically control the flow of the manufacturing process by a specific limit set by the user, and might e. g. support the production of a standard product like the Model T Ford car. The MIS contains three sub-systems. All three systems are supporting decision-making in a business and are called: Decision Support Systems (DSS), Information Reporting Systems (IRS) and the Executive Information Systems(EIS).DSS uses raw data along with different business models to provide useful information for the manager which he can use for making tactical and strategic decisions, being especially semi-structured or unstructured. The DSS is often created by end-users, because t hey often have the much needed knowledge about the organization compared to a bespoke or on-the-shelf package developed by a third party. An example is the expert system which contains the knowledge and decision making skills of specialists, giving none-specialists enough knowledge to make decisions.In the world of medicine, it’s possible for a nurse to enter the symptoms of a patient. The system will then compare the entered symptoms with all the different symptoms of different diseases already stored in a knowledge base and provide a diagnosis. A problem with the DSS is that the more options the system has the more complex it gets. IRS uses information to produce predefined reports for the day-to-day decision-making. There are two commonly known reports used by the IRS being the periodic and exception reports. The periodic reports is required by decision makers at regular intervals, it can e. . provide a report showing the sales of a product from day-to-day. The exception r eport is only being produced when needed; it might be produced automatically if a performance measure moves outside a predefined range. EIS is mostly used for the strategic decision making by senior managers to monitor, compare and analyze and thereby support the decision-making process of the senior manager. EIS could e. g. notify the senior manager with specific information about a facility anywhere in the world underperforming, giving him enough information to make a decision about the future of the facility.The different IS just described are each used at different levels of an organization. The top leaders of an organization are all placed in the strategic level, where unstructured decisions are a big part of the management. They mainly use EIS to support their decisions but it’s important to notice that their decisions tend to rely on their own knowledge and experience as well. At the tactical level of an organization the expert and decision support systems are used to support the semi-structured decisions being made at this level.The operational level of an organization makes a lot of structured decisions because of their little authority; therefore the TPS is used by the workers at this level on a day-to-day basis. The higher up we come in the organization the more unstructured the decisions are because of the level of authority rises. But this isn’t always true; it is possible to make unstructured decisions at the operational level as well as structured decisions at the strategic level. E. g. in a hospital the doctors (who work at the operational level) often have the authority to make important and less structured decisions.Question 2 The project management process There are three key elements of the project management process being time, cost and quality. BIS (Business Information Systems) projects are likely to consume a lot of time and money and involve many parts of the specific organization; the project manager therefore has a big responsibility for the failure or success of a project and whether or not the project is following the time, cost and quality requirements given. The use of a well-structured project management process has the ability to highly reduce the chance of a BIS projects failure.The project management process has four steps being: Estimation, schedule/plan, monitoring and control, documentation. The estimation step gives the project manager time to plan how much time and effort the project will take to fulfill the given requirements. The overall project requirements will be compared to the available resources. In the early stages of the project it’s often hard for the project manager to give precise estimations because of the great amount of uncertainty, but the project will often be constrained by a deadline or the type of people and hardware available.Effort time and elapsed time is two important terms used to explain the amount of work different tasks will take. Effort time explai ns the total amount of work needed to complete a task while the elapsed time indicates how many calendar days the task will take. A project’s estimation will often change a lot from the start and to the end of a project because of the many constraints and changes that can occur. The requirements might change or hardware might break down, but a good estimation is essential to the success or failure of a project.The schedule/planning step is about determining when a project should be executed; the finished schedule is then called the plan. There are two main terms important to notice called the serial and parallel relationship. The serial relationship describes how some activities have to be completed before another activity can start. The parallel relationship explains how some activities can be totally independent, but that four activities might need to run in parallel before an implementation can occur. Monitoring and control is a very important step which ensures that the t asks of a project are meeting the requirements.This is done by monitoring the different tasks; if the project isn’t running as planned and is deviating from the given requirements, controls might need to be made for the project not to fail. To disseminate the information provided during project execution an essential step is documentation. It’s the project manager’s task to make sure that good documentation is provided from the different parts of the project. With poor documentation or without any information at all, the project might not deliver on time and the expenses of maintenance will most likely increase.It’s also important that the documentation provided is acceptable and understandable. My project: To support my project planning a Gantt chart was made to show an overview of the activities. Project startup describes my first day of the project; I chose my questions and estimated the overall process of the project. I wanted to use three days on eac h question, all though I have to use four days on question 2 because of other homework. My writing will compared to my estimation be finished on the 30-okt and I will thereafter be editing the project. The product has to be finished and delivered on the 2-Nov.If the project isn’t delivered on the 2-Nov the project will fail. The different tasks being question 1, 2 and 3 are in this project all independent but I chose to run them in a parallel relationship with the editing task so that before the editing task can occur, the three questions have to be answered. This gives me an overview of the size of my project and whether or not the project has to be shorter. I have been executing the project as planned so far regarding time (today 22-okt), but looking at the size of my project so far, I’m going need more time than estimated on cutting the project in the editing phase.Relation between the project management steps and the SDLC The main phases of the System Development L ife Cycle (SDLC) are by order: Initiation, feasibility study, requirement analysis, system design, build, implement, maintain and kill. The estimation step is used in almost all of the SDLC stages, and will be used more frequently in some stages depending on the type of project. In the initiation stage of the project the project manager will use estimation to make an overview of the project, estimating the different resources that are required to carry out the project, but the estimation isn’t detailed yet.A detailed estimation will be produced when the project has been determined feasible and is under or close to production. The leader will estimate whether or not the project is feasible at the feasibility stage by using the information granted through interviews and reports. In the analysis stage the requirements for the new system will be specified. After the requirements have been established it’s possible to make a detailed estimation of especially the work requir ed at the design and build phase.The estimations will often be much more precise if timings from the previous projects are available. The scheduling and planning step runs alongside the estimation step. By knowing how much time and effort is needed for the project, it’s possible to make a more precise schedule of the process of the project. It’s important to always have a schedule of the plan for the project, but the most effective schedule will be made after the detailed estimation has been produced at the analysis phase (it can be produced at other steps depending on the project).Once the schedule has been produced, the monitoring and control step will monitor the performance at all of the SDLC stages and ensure that the project is following the schedule/plan and fulfilling the requirements. It’s essential to monitor all of the SDLC stages since deviating from the plan can result in a project failure. Documentation is important during the whole project but esp ecially essential at the development and maintenance phases. This is because most projects are based on team efforts.Not only does the documentation allow monitoring and controlling, but it allows the different members of a development team to disseminate their design information between each other, making their work more effective. The V- and spiral model The V-model’s V describes the graphical overview of the relationship between the different tests and SDLC phases, but the V is also a synonym for verification and validation. The verification will check if there is any better solution to the design of the product, and that the design we are building is without errors or bugs.The validation is used to test the design of the product and check whether the design is fulfilling the requirements. Validation and verification forms the basis for producing tests. The tests shown in the V-model are used during implementation which is why the model has the V-shape. But it’s i mportant to notice that the life cycle phases on the left side have to occur, before the tests on the right side of the model can occur. A concern about the V-model is that it has no maintenance phase, meaning that it’s possible to believe that the product is finished and bug-free when signed off.The SDLC can also be used via the spiral model. The spiral model is an iterative system. The three stages of analyzing, design and coding often tend to be repeated as a part of the prototyping process, and this is why the spiral model was made. The spiral model consists of four main activities: Planning, risk analysis, engineering and customer relation. The model contains all of the elements of the SDLC but it also contains risk assessment. By being able to make several iterations it’s possible to make a more detailed production and to add in new elements to the production because of the repetition. Question 3 The IS/IT functionThe goal of using IS/IT is the hope that it will generate more benefit than the costs used on it. The function of IS in an organization, is to make the management process effective and support it. IT is the tools like hardware and software that the organization uses so IS can run and be built. Managing the IS/IT functions When managing IS there are different areas that need to be managed. It’s important to manage the development of the different business systems. When migrating from one system to another it’s important to have a project leader, as well as to manage and make sure that the migration is going as planned.When inventing end-user applications, it’s important to have management to make sure that the software being produced isn’t full of bugs, and isn’t a reinvention. Other important areas that needs to be managed is the database administration, user support and training, shared services and the IS/IT staffing. It’s also important to manage different areas of IT. Some of the areas that need to be managed are which hardware platforms to use in the organization, the manager might choose to only use the client/server environment.Good network architecture is also vital to an organizations sharing of information, and therefore it’s important that this area is managed. Many organizations use a lot of money on IT, and many big organizations have large amounts of IT including development tools. If this area isn’t managed, new tools being bought might not be compatible with the chosen database management systems or the selected hardware platforms. If an organization is using legacy systems, these needs to be managed so that it can still operate with newer systems (this might be an IS area as well).A final important area to manage is the operations management which contains hardware management, capacity planning, security, technical support, telecommunications and network management. Organizing the IS/IT functions To organize the different functions of I S/IT isn’t easy, but an essential part of making IS/IT more effective in a business. It’s possible to ether centralize or decentralize when organizing the IS/IT function in a business. When centralizing, the IS/IT management will be placed in one specific spot in the organization from where all of the functions of IS/IT will be managed.This could for example be the MIS, which will then be reporting to an IT director or another head of the department. Decentralization is the opposite of centralizing and means that the IS/IT functions will be spread out across the organization by having small IS/IT groups stored in different parts of the organization. It’s hard for organizations to be 100 % centralized or decentralized all though many organizations tend to focus on one of them. Outsourcing Outsourcing is a term used when a company chooses to subcontract a service to a third party. This service can be catering, cleaning, public relations and IS.Outsourcing of IS ma nagement has become a major term in many companies in the world today because of its many benefits and uses. Some of these are cost reduction, quality improvement, risk reduction and to enable a focus on the core business. In a 2009 IBM survey of 2500 CIO’s worldwide 76% of the respondents anticipate to have a strongly centralized infrastructure in five years. A highly centralized IS/IT function does as mentioned before contribute to cost reduction, and having the function in one place makes it easier for companies to take advantage of developments like outsourcing.By seeing more companies outsourcing and more companies wanting to centralize which both contribute to a lower cost might not be a coincidence, and can be a way of saying that IT is more than just a support capacity for the outsourcing/centralizing organizations. Outsourcing plays a huge role in the management process as well. The problem with outsourcing and its relationship with the management process is the impo rtance of making outsourcing work. Outsourcing might be a huge trend, but this doesn’t necessarily mean that it’s going to work.Many company’s outsourcing projects tend to fail because of bad management and contracts with the third-party. The failure of many outsourcing projects can have a connection between the management and organizing of the IS/IT functions. If the management and organizing of the IS/IT functions isn’t managed well or if the company isn’t seeing IS/IT as an important part of the company’s strategy, outsourcing has a bigger chance of failing. Litteraturliste * Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 * http://www. omputerworld. com/s/article/347073/Swinging_Toward_Centralization (29-10-2011, klokken 13:10) ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edit ion, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 8 [ 2 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 43 [ 3 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 44 [ 4 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 249 [ 5 ].Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley, Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 687 [ 6 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley, Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 254 [ 7 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley ,Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 262 [ 8 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley, Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 262 [ 9 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 346 [ 10 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hicki e, 2008 s. 351 [ 11 ].Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 355 [ 12 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 356 [ 13 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 544 [ 14 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 544 [ 15 ]. Business Information Systems, fourth edition, Paul Bocij Andrew Greasley Simon Hickie, 2008 s. 547 [ 16 ]. http://www. computerworld. com/s/article/347073/Swinging_Toward_Centralization (29-10-2011, klokken 13:10)

Comparing Ulysses Essay

Both Ulysses and Macbeth were able to gain power of kingship, but the way they gained the powers are different. In this essay I am going to compare how they regard power, both differently and similarly. I intend to use Heinemann, (1994), version of Macbeth by Shakespeare and the class handout of Ulysses. The main focus of Macbeth will be from Act1 Scene 7, lines 1-28 and Act 2 Scene 1, line 33-61, whilst I will also take account of other related part throughout the play. Since Lord Tennyson and William Shakespeare are from different era in the history, their perspective of the world will be different, therefore I will also mention about Shakespeare’s and Lord Tennyson’s different perspective towards power and language they used. Most great writers reflect their attitude to life on their work, so it is important to consider the social and historical background of the Jacobeans- the time when Shakespeare wrote the play, and the Victorian time, when Lord Tennyson was alive. In Victorian times, Britain was a powerful country. There were unlimited opportunities for mainly the upper class people to broaden their knowledge by going to new places and experience the foreign cultures. When Lord Tennyson wrote this poem, he was grieving over his best friend’s death. By writing this poem he was able to express his emotional feeling as well as to persuade him to let it go. He also had the opportunities to tell people that it is â€Å"never too late to seek a newer world†. For examples, Ulysses’ new world would be the after life world and Lord Tennyson’s new world would be the world without his best friend. At the end of Macbeth, the moral we get is that never to cross the line of Divine Order. During Jacobean time, they believed that the duty of the King is chosen by God: They believed that every living organism has an order and it is decided by God, this is call the Divine Order. If one decides to go against the Divine Order, like killing the King to be the monarchy himself then, he had done something that is very morbid during the Jacobeans: going against God. Shakespeare tried show that by the cost of Macbeth have to face after he had murdered the King, one example is that he lost his respects from his courtiers and at the end he was all by himself. Jacobeans were also very superstitious; they believed that witches are evil because they worship demon, so if there was a plague or a natural disaster, they blamed on the witches: they are first put to trials and then was executed, mainly hanged or burned. Because Shakespeare made Macbeth associate with the witches by talking and worse of all trusting them, that made Macbeth evil. Shakespeare did this to please his King, King James, as he was against the supernatural and was able help King James to spread the evilness of the witches through his play. The poem, â€Å"Ulysses† started by a slow rhythm. Lord Tennyson managed this by using the words with long vowels such as, â€Å"hoard, and sleep, and feed†. These words give us the sense of dullness and mundane, which was how Ulysses feels at the beginning. However, as we go further down the poem, the dullness was decrease as he started to talk about his adventurous days.

Personal Learning Styles Essay - 1184 Words

Abstract Throughout life everyone learns. How we learn and whether we are able to retain and recall that information is the problematic part. This paper will discuss the ways that we all are diverse and the various ways we are most able to learn for long-term knowledge. Most people know that everyone has different learning styles. The way we absorb, analyze, and retain information is what makes each individual unique. What is successful for one individual may not be the most optimal way of learning for someone else. Mr. Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, suggested that there are eight different intelligences governing which learning style would be the most productive-based upon our own†¦show more content†¦Another type of intelligence is the verbal-linguistic. They are people who are usually very good with grammar and remember terms and definitions easily. The best ways for a verbal-linguistic person to study would be to outline chapters or teaching and reciting information out loud. Group study may be beneficial to this person as well. Musical-rhythmic intelligence would apply to people who are sensitive to tonal qualities and understand the structure of music and rhythm. Learning with music in the background, or putting rhythms to words to make recalling information easier, would be a study technique very useful for this type of learner. Have you ever looked at someones notes that are all colored in, or highlighted, or there are charts and graphs in the margins? If so, those notes would likely belong to a visual-spatial type intelligence. In general, this person likes to draw, and can do so quite accurately when analyzing the relationship of objects either by using graphs or mapping the process in his or her mind. A logical-mathematical intelligence person would organize material logically when taking notes, and would likely re-do them on the computer when they got home to keep them neat and organized. Reasoning inductively and deductively in everyday life would help them recognize abstract patterns and want to delve further into how things are connected and theShow MoreRelatedPersonal Essay Learning Style623 Words   |  3 Pageshead: PERSONAL ESSAY Personal Essay of Marie Moore Marie Moore COLL100 B020 American Public University PERSONAL ESSAY Personal Essay of Marie Moore The following is a personal essay about various topics about my college education and my learning styles. This personal essay will include thoughts or reasons for seeking a college degree. As well as my own personal learning styles, which are based upon inventories that have been taken. This personal essayRead More Personal Learning Styles Essay832 Words   |  4 Pages Personal learning styles are highly complex and unique to specific individuals. It is often difficult to pinpoint an exact learning style. Though there are different categories, we often fine tune them to our own abilities. By examining our traits and tendencies we create a clearer understanding of how we process and learn information. With careful review, I have developed a specific analysis of my learning characteristics, including an evaluation of skill levels. Based on what I have recently learnedRead MorePersonal Learning Style At School966 Words   |  4 PagesPeople are different in their own way. Just as people are different, their styles of learning are different in a way in which affects the way they learn and determines whether they can succeed. Every person finds out what learning style they adept well to as it helps them achieve things much easier. Some students prefer to study at night before they go to bed. On the other hand, some students are more able to preserve more information if they study first thing in the morning, some people prefer toRead MoreMy Personal Teaching Style And My Student s Learning Styles969 Words   |  4 Pagesthe reading, Learning and Teaching Styles In Foreign and Second Language Education by Richard M. Felder –Eunice R. Henriques. I have related this reading selection to my personal teaching/ learning style and my student’s learning styles, but especially to one particular student that I work with. The students’ on my caseload have disabilities that range from the following: verbal, sensory, auditory skills, and emotional and behavior disorders. Most of my students’ have specific learning disabilitiesRead MorePersonal Learning Style894 Words   |  4 PagesPERSONAL LEARNING STYLE I recently researched the four main learning styles, which helped me to determine which of the four I thought I was best matched with. These four learning styles are: visual learning, auditory or linguistic learning, reading/writing-preference learning, and kinesthetic. Visual learners like to see what they are being taught, such as looking at an over-head projection. Auditory learners like listening to lecturesRead MorePersonal Learning Style763 Words   |  4 PagesPERSONAL LEARNING STYLE Who would have ever thought taking a college course would require one to learn how to learn? It is a good concept we normally undergo at a very young age. At the pre-school age one will find children learning their strength and weakness through their playtime. As adults we almost forget we have to learn how to learn to continue growth in our workplace, school, and in life. In our second week of online classes I learned strengths and weakness in my learning style withRead More Personal Learning Style Essay753 Words   |  4 Pages PERSONAL LEARNING STYLE nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Who would have ever thought taking a college course would require one to learn how to learn? It is a good concept we normally undergo at a very young age. At the pre-school age one will find children learning their strength and weakness through their playtime. As adults we almost forget we have to learn how to learn to continue growth in our workplace, school, and in life. In our second week of online classes I learned strengthsRead MoreMy Personal Learning Style Essay examples777 Words   |  4 PagesMy Personal Learning Style Wow! I have a personal learning style! If I had given any thought to my learning style prior to this course, I would have said simply, Some things are easy for me to learn, and some things are not. Now I can say, I am a grouper, a top-down learner, an owl, in the C-D quadrants, and my strong intelligences are linguistic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. What all this means, still, is some things are easy for me to learn, and some things are not. But thereRead MoreVark Learning Styles: Read/Write Learning Style1031 Words   |  5 Pages VARK Learning styles: Read/write learning style Name: Institution: VARK Learning styles: Read/write learning style Overview of the read/write learning style The read/write learning style mainly makes the use of printed words to receive and convey learning information. Using the style enables one skill to become the input of another through the transfer of the ability to read to that of writing. The skills transfer is integral in raising the awareness of how the structural components involved inRead MoreThe Visual Learner in Me: Analyzing Different Learning Styles563 Words   |  3 Pagesabout what your learning preference may be? Did you know everyone may have a style of learning? By taking a self assessment, you can identify your own learning style. Implementing this understanding into your daily life, may help ensure a better comprehension of material. In this essay, I will gather information about two self assessments I have taken. These self assessments describe my individual learning style. I will determine